Affirmative action was ① initiated during the Johnson Administration in the late 1960s, and the Nixon Administration ② expanded the efforts by putting them into law. Affirmative action began not as a defined program, but as a philosophy that there should be affirmative action in American society toward citizens of all races, ethnicities and both genders, as well as with those with different religious beliefs. Before the ③ implementation of this philosophy, there was both an active and a more subtle ④ exclusion of citizens from education, employment, housing, and even public transportation. Affirmative action was designed to provide equal ⑤ assess to opportunity for all persons.
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